Advent of Europeans in India, Factors, Portuguese, French, British

For thousands of years, India occupied a central position in global trade networks. Its spices, cotton textiles, silk, precious stones, and artisanal goods attracted merchants from West Asia, Europe, East Africa, and Southeast Asia. These exchanges were largely peaceful and mutually beneficial. However, the closing years of the fifteenth century witnessed a dramatic transformation in this long-standing relationship.

In 1498, the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama reached the shores of the Indian subcontinent, establishing a direct maritime route between Europe and India. This achievement marked the beginning of sustained European involvement in India. In the decades that followed, other European powers such as the Dutch, English, French, and Danes arrived, intensifying competition for trade dominance and territorial control. What initially began as commercial interaction gradually evolved into political interference and colonial rule, fundamentally altering India’s social, economic, and political landscape.

Why Europeans Sought a Sea Route to India

From the fifteenth century onwards, European nations actively searched for a direct sea route to India in order to bypass traditional land routes controlled by intermediary powers and to gain direct access to India’s highly profitable trade. Economic ambition, combined with political, technological, and religious factors, pushed Europeans towards maritime exploration.

• Disruption of Land Routes: The fall of Constantinople in 1453 and the expansion of the Ottoman Empire disrupted the overland trade routes between Europe and Asia, making Asian goods scarce and expensive in Europe.
• High Demand for Indian Goods: India was famous for spices, textiles, indigo, silk, and precious stones, which were in great demand in European markets due to their commercial and strategic value.
• Desire to Eliminate Middlemen: Arab and Venetian traders dominated the spice trade, raising prices; Europeans wanted a direct route to India to maximize profits by removing intermediaries.
• Growth of Mercantilism: European states followed mercantilist policies, aiming to accumulate wealth through favorable trade balances, for which direct overseas trade and colonies were considered essential.
• Advances in Navigation and Shipbuilding: Improvements such as the compass, astrolabe, better maps, and stronger ships made long-distance sea voyages safer and more feasible.
• Spirit of Renaissance and Exploration: The Renaissance encouraged curiosity, scientific inquiry, and exploration, fostering a culture that supported overseas voyages.
• Religious Motivation: There was a desire to spread Christianity and counter Islamic control over existing trade routes, especially among Catholic nations like Portugal and Spain.
• State Support and Royal Patronage: European monarchs actively financed and encouraged voyages, viewing overseas expansion as a means to enhance political power and prestige.

The Advent of the Portuguese in India

Factors Behind the Portuguese Voyage to India

Several political, economic, and intellectual developments in Europe encouraged the Portuguese to seek a direct sea route to India.

After the decline of the Roman Empire and the fall of Constantinople in 1453, traditional land routes connecting Europe with Asia came under the control of Arab and Ottoman powers. This disrupted Europe’s access to Indian spices, textiles, and luxury goods, making them expensive and scarce. As a result, European nations began searching for alternative maritime routes to reach India directly.

The fifteenth century also witnessed a strong spirit of exploration in Europe. Influenced by the Renaissance, Europeans developed a scientific outlook and curiosity about the world. Improvements in navigation, shipbuilding, use of the compass, astrolabe, and better maps made long sea voyages possible and relatively safer.

Another important factor was the Treaty of Tordesillas signed in 1494. This treaty divided the non-Christian world between Portugal and Spain. Portugal was granted rights over eastern territories, including India, which encouraged Portuguese expeditions into the Indian Ocean and strengthened their claim over Asian trade routes.

Portuguese Administration and Governors

The Portuguese established a centralized and militarised administration in India to control trade routes and coastal territories. Their governance was aimed at maintaining maritime supremacy, protecting commercial interests, and monopolising the spice trade. The Viceroy served as the highest authority, representing the Portuguese Crown in Asia.

Vasco da Gama

• In May 1498, Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut with three ships, guided by a Gujarati pilot, Abdul Majid, marking the beginning of European maritime contact with India.
• The ruler of Calicut, the Zamorin, welcomed the Portuguese as his kingdom prospered from Calicut’s role as an entrepôt in Indian Ocean trade.
• Arab traders, who dominated commerce on the Malabar Coast, opposed the Portuguese presence and feared loss of trade.
• The Portuguese aimed to monopolise the eastern spice trade by breaking the long-standing, multi-participant Indian Ocean trading system.
• Vasco da Gama returned to Portugal with a profitable cargo of pepper, proving that direct trade reduced costs by almost ten times compared to buying through Muslim middlemen.
• In 1500, Pedro Álvares Cabral established a factory at Calicut, but conflict led him to attack Arab ships and bombard Calicut.
• Vasco da Gama’s second visit in 1501 ended relations with the Zamorin after he demanded exclusion of Arab traders and attacked Arab shipping.
• The Portuguese gradually set up factories at Calicut, Cochin, and Cannanore, later fortifying them under the pretext of protecting trade

Francisco de Almeida (1505–1509)

• Francisco de Almeida was appointed the first Portuguese Governor (Viceroy) of India in 1505.
• His primary objective was to destroy Muslim naval power and secure Portuguese dominance in the Indian Ocean.
• He faced opposition from the Zamorin of Calicut and the Mamluk Sultan of Egypt, who supported Indian traders.
• In 1507, Portuguese forces suffered a temporary naval setback near Diu.
• In 1509, Almeida defeated the combined fleet of Egypt and Gujarat in the Battle of Diu, establishing Portuguese naval supremacy.
• He followed the Blue Water Policy, believing that control of the seas was more important than territorial conquest.

Blue Water Policy and Cartaz System

The Blue Water Policy aimed at controlling the seas to dominate trade, while the Cartaz System regulated maritime commerce through permits. Together, they enabled the Portuguese to exercise economic and military control over Indian Ocean trade networks. These policies ensured Portuguese monopoly over spice trade routes.

• Under the Blue Water Policy, the Portuguese avoided territorial expansion and prioritized naval control.
• The Cartaz System required all merchant ships to carry Portuguese-issued passes to trade legally.
• Ships without a cartaz were liable to confiscation or destruction.
• Helped the Portuguese extract revenue and weaken Arab and Indian merchants.

Alfonso de Albuquerque (1509–1515)

• Alfonso de Albuquerque, who succeeded Francisco de Almeida, is regarded as the real founder of Portuguese power in the East, as he completed the task of establishing Portuguese dominance before his death.
• He secured strategic control over the Indian Ocean by setting up strong Portuguese bases at all major sea entrances—East Africa, Ormuz (Persian Gulf), Malabar Coast, and Malacca, ensuring control over key maritime routes.
• Albuquerque strengthened Portuguese dominance by introducing a permit (Cartaz) system for all ships and by controlling major ship-building centres, while the lack of timber in the Red Sea and Gulf regions further helped Portuguese naval supremacy.
• In 1510, he captured Goa from the Sultan of Bijapur with ease, making it the first Indian territory under European control since the time of Alexander the Great, and later the capital of Portuguese India.
• An important social reform under his rule was the abolition of sati, reflecting limited administrative intervention in local customs.
• Albuquerque encouraged Portuguese settlement in India, promoting marriages with local women; Portuguese settlers became landlords, artisans, craftsmen, and traders, built roads and irrigation works, and introduced crops like tobacco and cashew nut, besides improving coconut plantations for coir and cordage.

Nino da Cunha (1529–1538)

• Assumption of Office and Headquarters Shift: Nino da Cunha became the governor of Portuguese interests in India in November 1529 and within a year shifted the headquarters from Cochin to Goa, making it the central seat of Portuguese administration.
• Acquisition of Bassein: During Bahadur Shah of Gujarat’s conflict with Mughal emperor Humayun, the Portuguese supported him and, in return, received the island of Bassein in 1534, along with its dependencies and revenues.
• Base in Diu Promised: Bahadur Shah also promised the Portuguese a base in Diu, consolidating their strategic presence along the western coast of India.
• Conflict with Bahadur Shah: Relations with Bahadur Shah deteriorated in 1536 after Humayun withdrew from Gujarat. Local resistance to Portuguese rule escalated, and during negotiations, Bahadur Shah was invited aboard a Portuguese ship and killed in 1537.
• Expansion in Bengal: Da Cunha attempted to extend Portuguese influence in eastern India by settling many Portuguese nationals in Hooghly, establishing it as their headquarters in Bengal.
• Policy Toward Muslims and Commerce: The Portuguese continued the aggressive policy of persecuting Muslims, aiming to eliminate Muslim commercial dominance in the region and strengthen Portuguese trade interests.
• Fortification and Commerce in Goa: Albuquerque’s earlier policy of fortifying Goa and enhancing its commercial importance continued under da Cunha, ensuring its role as a strategic and economic hub.
• Encouragement of Portuguese Settlement: To secure a permanent Portuguese population in India, settlers were encouraged to marry Indian women, creating stable communities that contributed to trade, administration, and cultural exchanges.

Religious Policy of the Portuguese

• Religious Zeal and Intolerance: The Portuguese, who had long been enemies of the Moors in North Africa and Arabs in the East, brought with them a strong zeal to promote Christianity and persecute Muslims. Initially, they were tolerant towards Hindus, but this changed after the introduction of the Goa Inquisition, which led to persecution of Hindus as well.
• Akbar’s Invitation to Jesuits: In September 1579, Emperor Akbar, interested in theological discussions, requested the Church authorities in Goa to send two learned Jesuit priests to his court. The Church eagerly complied, hoping to convert the emperor.
• First Jesuit Mission (1580–1583): Rodolfo Aquaviva and Antonio Monserrate reached Fatehpur Sikri on 28 February 1580. They were treated with honour, but their mission to convert Akbar to Christianity ultimately failed by 1583.
• Second and Third Missions: Akbar’s second mission (1590–1592) similarly failed. The third mission (1595), led by Jerome Xavier and Emanuel Pinheiro in Lahore, became more permanent, extending Jesuit influence into secular politics and providing valuable records of Akbar’s later reign.
• Jahangir’s Attitude: Prince Salim (later Emperor Jahangir) initially neglected the Jesuits to appease the Muslims, but by 1606, he renewed favours, allowing them to retain churches and residences and conduct public baptisms in Agra by 1608.
• Limits of Jesuit Influence: Despite these privileges, the Jesuits failed to convert Jahangir. Moreover, the arrogant actions of Portuguese viceroys created a rift, limiting their influence at the Mughal court.

Decline of the Portuguese in India (First to Come, Last to Go)

Significance of the Portuguese Rule

• Beginning of the European Era and Naval Power: The arrival of the Portuguese marked the start of the European era in India and the rise of naval power. For the first time, a foreign power reached India by sea and used naval strength to dominate trade.
• Use of Firearms and Military Force in Trade: Portuguese ships were equipped with cannons, allowing them to enforce trade monopolies through threat or use of force. They openly rejected existing Indian Ocean trading norms and imposed their own rules.
• Military Innovations on Land: In the Malabar region, the Portuguese introduced body armour, matchlock soldiers, and ship-mounted guns used on land. Their methods influenced Mughal artillery, including field guns and the “artillery of the stirrup.”
• Infantry Drill and the Sepoy System: The Portuguese introduced organised infantry drilling on the Spanish model in the 1630s. This system was later adopted by the French, English, Marathas, and Sikhs, shaping the future sepoy armies of India.
• Advances in Naval Technology and Organisation: They used strong multi-decked ships capable of carrying heavy armaments and introduced castled prow and stern designs. Their efficient naval organisation, dockyards, mapping, and pilot systems set new standards.
• Cultural and Artistic Contributions: Despite religious intolerance, the Portuguese contributed to Indian art and culture through church patronage. Goa became a centre of painting, sculpture, music, and fine metalwork, especially silver and gold filigree.

The Advent of the Dutch in India

The Dutch entered the East with the arrival of Cornelis de Houtman at Sumatra and Bantam in 1596. In 1602, the Dutch East India Company was formed with powers to trade, wage war, and acquire territories. This marked the beginning of Dutch commercial expansion in India and the Indian Ocean region.

Anglo Dutch Rivarly

• The rise of the English in Eastern trade posed a direct commercial challenge to Dutch dominance in Asia.
• Economic competition between the two companies soon escalated into armed conflict.
• The rivalry reached its peak at Amboyna in 1623, where the Dutch massacred ten Englishmen and nine Japanese.
• The Amboyna incident deepened hostility and prolonged Anglo-Dutch warfare in the East.
• In 1667, a compromise was reached: the English withdrew claims from Indonesia, while the Dutch reduced their presence in India.
• The Dutch then focused on Indonesia, monopolising spice and pepper trade, while trading in India mainly in silk, cotton, indigo, rice, and opium.

Decline of the Dutch in India

• The Dutch gradually shifted their focus from India to the Malay Archipelago, especially the Spice Islands of Indonesia. This diversion reduced their strategic and commercial attention towards India.
• During the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–74), tensions between the English and the Dutch intensified in Asian waters. This wider European conflict directly affected their trading interests in India.
• Communication between Surat and the English settlement of Bombay was disrupted during the war. Taking advantage of this, the Dutch captured three English ships in the Bay of Bengal.
• The English retaliated strongly against Dutch aggression in eastern India. This led to the decisive Battle of Hooghly in November 1759.
• The Dutch suffered a crushing defeat at Hooghly, which shattered their political and military ambitions in India. After this loss, they were unable to challenge English power effectively.
• Unlike the English, the Dutch were not interested in building a territorial empire in India. Their primary profits came from the spice trade of Indonesia, making India secondary to their global strategy.

The Advent of the English in India

• Inspired by Francis Drake’s circumnavigation (1580) and England’s victory over the Spanish Armada (1588), English merchants sought to enter the profitable Eastern trade dominated by the Portuguese.
• In 1599, English traders formed a joint-stock company, and on 31 December 1600, Queen Elizabeth I granted a charter to the Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies, initially giving it a 15-year monopoly, later extended indefinitely in 1609.
• Early English attempts to establish a foothold faced strong Portuguese opposition; Captain Hawkins’ mission to Jahangir (1609–11) failed, though trading began at Masulipatnam on the Coromandel Coast in 1611.
• A major breakthrough came in 1612 when Captain Thomas Best defeated the Portuguese near Surat, leading Jahangir to permit the English to set up a factory at Surat in 1613 under Thomas Aldworth.
• Sir Thomas Roe’s embassy to Jahangir (1615–1619) did not secure a formal treaty but obtained important trading privileges, including permission to establish factories at Agra, Ahmedabad, and Broach.
• English power strengthened further after acquiring Bombay (given by Portugal in 1662 and leased to the Company in 1668), the Anglo-Dutch compromise, and grants like the Golden Farman of Golconda (1632), along with the establishment of Fort St. George at Madras in 1639, laying the foundation of English dominance in India.

Expansion in Bengal

• Bengal was one of the richest provinces of India, highly developed in agriculture, trade, and commerce, and therefore became an attractive region for the profit-oriented English East India Company.
• In 1651, Shah Shuja, the Mughal subahdar of Bengal, permitted the English to trade in Bengal on payment of an annual sum of ₹3,000 in lieu of all customs duties, leading to the establishment of factories at Hooghly, Kasimbazar, Patna, and Rajmahal.
• Despite Mughal farmans, the Company frequently faced obstruction from local customs officials, prompting it to seek a fortified settlement at Hooghly to protect its commercial interests by force if required.
• When appeals by William Hedges to Shaista Khan failed, hostilities broke out, and in October 1686 the Mughal forces sacked Hooghly, forcing the English to retreat after limited retaliatory attacks on Mughal positions.
• After negotiations led by Job Charnock, the English were allowed to return to Sutanuti, and an imperial farman issued on 10 February 1691 permitted them to trade peacefully in Bengal on payment of ₹3,000 annually.
• Taking advantage of Sobha Singh’s rebellion, the English fortified Sutanuti in 1696 and later acquired the zamindari of Sutanuti, Gobindapur, and Kalikata in 1698, leading to the establishment of Fort William in 1700, which became the seat of the Eastern Presidency at Calcutta.

Farrukhsiyar’s Farmans

• In 1715, an English mission led by John Surman visited the Mughal court of Emperor Farrukhsiyar and secured three important farmans for the East India Company covering Bengal, Gujarat, and Hyderabad, later called the Magna Carta of the Company.
• In Bengal, the Company was exempted from all additional customs duties on imports and exports, except for the fixed annual payment of ₹3,000, strengthening its commercial dominance in the province.
• The Company was allowed to issue dastaks (passes) for free movement of goods and was permitted to rent additional land around Calcutta, helping territorial expansion.
• In Hyderabad, the Company retained duty-free trade privileges and had to pay only the existing rent for Madras, while in Surat it was exempted from all duties on payment of ₹10,000 annually.
• The Company’s Bombay-minted coins were declared legal tender throughout the Mughal Empire, greatly enhancing its financial and commercial power.
• These concessions were secured through diplomacy and flattery, but despite these advantages, the English still had to eliminate European rivals especially the French to establish complete political control over India.

The Advent of the French in India

The French were the last major European power to enter India for trade, arriving much later than the Portuguese, Dutch, and English. Under Louis XIV, France made a serious attempt to participate in Eastern commerce through a state-backed trading company. Although their start was slow, the French gradually established important trading and political centres in India.

• In 1664, under the guidance of Colbert, the French East India Company (Compagnie des Indes Orientales) was established and granted a 50-year monopoly over French trade in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
• The Company also received perpetual rights over Madagascar and any territories it could conquer, but heavy investment in Madagascar failed to produce results.
• In 1667, Francois Caron led the first French expedition to India and established a factory at Surat, marking the formal French entry into Indian trade.
• In 1669, Mercara, a Persian associate of Caron, set up a French factory at Masulipatnam after obtaining permission from the Sultan of Golconda.
• In 1673, the French obtained Mughal permission from Shaista Khan to establish a settlement at Chandernagore near Calcutta.

Pondicherry: Nerve Centre of French Power

Pondicherry became the political and commercial heart of French India. Under able leadership, it developed into a strong and well-administered French base.

1. In 1673–74, Francois Martin received permission from Sher Khan Lodi to establish a settlement at Pondicherry, which soon became the French headquarters in India.

2. Francois Martin replaced Caron as governor in 1674 and focused on strengthening Pondicherry’s trade, fortifications, and administration.

3. Other French trading centres included Mahe, Karaikal, Balasore, and Qasim Bazar, mainly along the Indian coast.

Early Setbacks to the French East India Company

Despite early successes, European wars seriously weakened French power in India during the late 17th and early 18th centuries.

1. During the Franco-Dutch War, the Dutch—supported by the English—captured Pondicherry in 1693.

2. Although the Treaty of Ryswick (1697) restored Pondicherry to France, actual control returned only after two more years.

3. The War of Spanish Succession forced the French to abandon factories at Surat, Masulipatnam, and Bantam.

4. The death of Francois Martin in 1706 further weakened French prospects in India.

Reorganisation of the French Company

The French trading system revived in the early 18th century through administrative reforms and capable leadership.

1. In 1720, the company was reorganised as the Perpetual Company of the Indies, restoring French commercial strength in India.

2. Governors Lenoir and Dumas (1720–1742) played a major role in stabilising administration and expanding French influence.

3. French possessions of Mauritius and Reunion in the Indian Ocean provided strategic naval and commercial support to French India.

Anglo-French Rivarly

Both the British and the French came to India initially for trade, but gradually became involved in Indian politics to establish territorial and political control. Their rivalry in India was part of the long-standing conflict between England and France in Europe. The struggle in India began during the Austrian War of Succession and ended with the Seven Years’ War.

The political situation in South India around 1740 was unstable due to the weakening of Hyderabad under Nizam Asaf Jah and the absence of strong regional powers. The Coromandel Coast had many small and weak states like Carnatic, Tanjore, Madurai, and Trichinopoly, making it ideal for European intervention. The rivalry was finally settled through three Carnatic Wars, which decided that the English, not the French, would dominate India.

First Carnatic War (1740–1748)

The First Carnatic War was fought between the British and the French in India as a part of the War of Austrian Succession in Europe. It mainly took place in the Carnatic region of South India. The war showed that European rivalries could strongly affect Indian politics.

• It began due to the War of Austrian Succession (1740) in Europe.
• The British and French fought for control over trade and territories in India.
• French captured Madras in 1746 under Dupleix.
• The Nawab of Carnatic failed to defeat the French at the Battle of Adyar.
• The war ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), returning Madras to the British.

Second Carnatic War (1749–1754)

The Second Carnatic War was mainly about political control rather than European wars. Both the British and French supported different Indian rulers to increase their influence. This war made the British stronger in South India.

• Fought over succession disputes in Carnatic and Hyderabad.
• French supported Chanda Sahib; British supported Muhammad Ali.
• Robert Clive’s capture of Arcot (1751) was a major turning point.
• British gained support of local rulers through diplomacy and force.
• The war ended with the Treaty of Pondicherry (1754).
• French influence declined after the recall of Dupleix.

Third Carnatic War (1756–1763)

The Third Carnatic War was part of the Seven Years’ War in Europe. It finally decided the fate of the French in India. The British emerged as the dominant European power.

• Linked with the Seven Years’ War (1756–63).
• British and French fought mainly in South India.
• The Battle of Wandiwash (1760) was decisive.
• French commander Lally was defeated by British forces.
• French lost most of their Indian territories.
• Ended with the Treaty of Paris (1763), restricting French to trading posts only.

The Advent of the Danes

• The Danes entered India mainly for commercial purposes, not territorial expansion.
• In 1616, the Danish East India Company was formed by King Christian IV of Denmark.
• Their first settlement in India was Tranquebar (Tharangambadi) on the Coromandel Coast in 1620.
• Tranquebar became the main Danish trading centre in South India.
• The Danes traded in cotton textiles, pepper, spices, and silk.
• They built Fort Dansborg at Tranquebar for protection of trade.
• The Danish presence in India was peaceful and limited, with little military ambition.
• In Serampore (Frederiksnagore) near Calcutta, the Danes established another important settlement.
• Serampore became a centre of education and missionary activities.
• The famous Serampore Trio (Carey, Marshman, Ward) worked under Danish protection when the British were hostile to missionaries.
• Unlike the British and French, the Danes did not interfere much in Indian politics.
• They lacked naval power, financial resources, and military strength.
• Danish trade declined due to competition from stronger European powers.
• The Danish East India Company suffered financial losses and mismanagement.
• Finally, in 1845, Denmark sold all its Indian possessions—Tranquebar and Serampore—to the British.
• After this sale, Danish influence in India came to a complete end.

Reasons for English Success Over Other Europeans

The English succeeded over other European powers in India due to their strong naval power, better organization, and financial strength. They also used diplomacy and Indian political rivalries more effectively than their rivals.

• Powerful Navy: The British had the strongest navy, which helped them control sea routes, protect trade, and defeat rivals like the French and Dutch.
• Strong Financial Support: The English East India Company was backed by wealthy merchants and the Bank of England, ensuring a steady flow of money.
• Efficient Administration: The Company had a well-organized administrative system with clear hierarchy and faster decision-making.
• Military Superiority: British forces were better trained, disciplined, and equipped with modern weapons and artillery.
• Unity of Command: Unlike other Europeans, the British followed unified leadership and coordinated policies.
• Use of Diplomacy: The English formed alliances with Indian rulers and used treaties to expand influence without direct warfare.
• Exploitation of Indian Rivalries: They took advantage of conflicts among Indian princes and succession disputes to strengthen their position.
• Political Ambition: Unlike the Dutch and Danes, the British aimed at political control along with trade.
• Stable Government in England: Political stability at home allowed consistent policies and long-term planning in India.
• Decline of Rivals: French defeats in Europe and weak colonial support reduced their power in India.

Advent of Europeans in India FAQs

1. Who were the first Europeans to come to India?

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach India. Vasco da Gama arrived at Calicut in 1498 by sea.

2. Why did Europeans come to India?

Europeans came mainly for trade, especially spices, textiles, silk, and precious goods. Later, political control also became an important aim.

3. Which European powers came to India?

The major European powers were:

• Portuguese
• Dutch
• English (British)
• French
• Danes

4. Why was India important for European trade?

India was famous for its spices, cotton textiles, silk, indigo, and handicrafts, which had high demand in Europe.

5. Which European power established the first trading company?

The Portuguese did not form a joint-stock company initially. The Dutch East India Company (VOC), formed in 1602, was the first major European trading company.

6. When was the English East India Company established?

The English East India Company was established in 1600 by a royal charter from Queen Elizabeth I.

7. What was a factory in European trade?

A factory was a trading post where European merchants stored goods and conducted trade. It did not mean a modern industrial factory.

8. Why did conflicts arise among European powers in India?

Conflicts arose due to competition for trade, control over ports, and political influence, especially between the British and the French.

9. Which wars decided European supremacy in India?

The Carnatic Wars played a key role in deciding European dominance, leading to British supremacy.

10. Why did the Portuguese decline in India?

The Portuguese declined due to weak successors, corruption, religious intolerance, and competition from stronger European powers.